Science diplomacy as a bridge for mediation

Science diplomacy is an ancient concept, but the academic literature is new. Therefore, the constituency of the field is only presently being defined.
Science for diplomacy (advice informing policy): The best example, as previously mentioned, is CERN, which was formed in 1954 with twelve countries. Geneva, Switzerland, was chosen to be the site for the project, primarily due to its diplomatic neutrality, which was the most valuable asset, as building the initial facilities of CERN would have cost the equivalent of $1.57 billion in the present day. This, perhaps, is one of the best examples of how a nation has successfully leveraged its neutrality.
The International Space Station (ISS) is another powerful example of science for diplomacy. Built and operated by the United States, Russia, Europe, Japan, and Canada, it has sustained cooperation between geopolitical rivals for over two decades, demonstrating how shared scientific goals can maintain dialogue and trust even during periods of political tension on Earth.
Diplomacy for science (enabling bilateral or multilateral cooperation): The Square Kilometre Array required a formal intergovernmental treaty (the SKAO Convention) signed by several nations. Diplomats had to negotiate complex issues like land rights on Indigenous territories, data-sharing protocols across borders, and how to split the massive electricity costs. This successful project now spans Africa and Australia.
Science in diplomacy (collaboration improving relations): The best example of science in diplomacy is the Montreal Protocol, which is considered to be the most successful environmental treaty. It was driven by scientific findings that CFCs were depleting the ozone layer. Scientists provided the evidence that allowed the US State Department and others to negotiate a global phase-out of these substances.
Another example is the IPCC (1988–present): the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change summarizes the latest climate research to provide a neutral, evidence-based foundation for global negotiations like the Paris Agreement, which was initiated by a famous atmospheric physicist who served as the first chair of the IPCC. Given the nature of these fundamental tenets of science diplomacy, it is important to note that science diplomacy usually serves the greater good.
However, it is not a fundamental form of diplomacy. Often, when two different nations wish to pursue a scientific venture together while their political relations are strained, this opens the door for mediation diplomacy and shuttle mediation diplomacy. Hence, it could be inferred that if mediation is not done a priori, science diplomacy initiatives between polarized nation states cannot be conducted.
Building on these two different foundations, the Muscat Model, if not taken as a fourth pillar, serves as a framework that mediates and supports constructive dialogue between nations through different forms of mediation diplomacy.